abrus precatorius (guruvinda ginjalu)
Abrus precatoriusFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
JequirityScientific classificationKingdom:Plantae(unranked):Angiosperms(unranked):Eudicots(unranked):RosidsOrder:FabalesFamily:FabaceaeGenus:AbrusSpecies:A. precatoriusBinomial nameAbrus precatorius
L.Abrus precatorius, known commonly as Jequirity, Crab's Eye, Rosary Pea, 'John Crow' Bead, Precatory bean, Indian Licorice, Akar Saga, Giddee Giddee or Jumbie Bead in Trinidad & Tobago,[1] is a slender, perennial climber that twines around trees, shrubs, and hedges. It is a legume with long, pinnate-leafleted leaves. It is also known as Gunja in Sanskrit and some Indian languages andRatti in Hindi. With ratti name, it was also long used to measure 0.12125 grams of a traditional unit, mostly used by jewellers and Ayurved doctors.[2] The seeds are also often used as beads and in percussion instruments. The seed contains the poison abrin. The plant is native to Indonesia and grows in tropical and subtropical areas of the world where it has been introduced. It has a tendency to becomeweedy and invasive where it has been introduced.
Contents [hide][edit]ToxinThe toxin present in Abrus precatorius is called abrin. It is a dimer consisting of two protein subunits, termed A and B. The B chain facilitates abrin's entry into a cell by bonding to certain transport proteins on cell membranes, which then transport the toxin into the cell. Once inside the cell, the A chain prevents protein synthesis by inactivating the 26S subunit of the ribosome. One molecule of abrin will inactivate up to 1,500 ribosomes per second. Symptoms are identical to those of ricin, except abrin is more toxic by almost two orders of magnitude; the fatal dose of abrin is approximately 75 times smaller than the fatal dose of ricin. Abrin can kill with a circulating amount of less than 3 μg (micrograms). 'Abrus precatorius' is called "kudri mani" in Tamil and 'Guru Ginja' in Telugu. It is used in Siddha medicine for centuries. The Tamil Siddhars knew about the toxic effects in plants and suggested various methods which is called "suththi seythal" or purification. This is done by boiling the seeds in milk and then drying them. The protein is denatured when subjected to high temperatures which removes it toxicity.[citation needed][dubious – discuss]
[edit]UsesAbrusWhiteSeedsThe seeds of Abrus precatorius are much valued in native jewelry for their bright coloration. The third of the bean with the hilum (attachment scar) is black, and the rest is bright red, suggesting a ladybug. Jewelry-making with jequirity seeds is dangerous, and there have been cases of death by a finger-prick while boring the seeds for beadwork. However, it has long been a symbol of love in China, and its name in Chinese is xiang si dou (Chinese: 相思豆), or "mutual love bean".
In Trinidad in the West Indies the brightly coloured seeds are strung into bracelets and worn around the wrist or ankle to ward off jumbies or evil spirits and "mal-yeux" - the evil eye. A tea is made from the leaves and used to treat fevers, coughs and colds.[3]
The Tamils use Abrus precatorius seeds of different colors. The red variety with black eye is the most common, but there are black, white and green varieties as well. In Siddha medicine the white variety is used to prepare oil that is used as an aphrodisiac.[4]
[edit]NamesAbrus precatorius has different names in various Indian languages.[5]
Bright red seeds of A. precatorius are strung as jewelry
Abrus precatorius leaves & flowers
Abrus precatorius flowers
Footnotes
References]External linksWikimedia Commons has media related to: JequirityWikimedia Commons has media related to: Abrus precatoriusWikispecies has information related to: Abrus precatorius
Footnotes
European Journal of Scientific Research
ISSN 1450-216X Vol.25 No.3 (2009), pp.428-436
© EuroJournals Publishing, Inc. 2009
http://www.eurojournals.com/ejsr.htm
Protective Effect of Abrus Precatorius Seed Extract following
Alcohol Induced Renal Damage
Ligha Ae
Department of human anatomy; Faculty of basic medical sciences
Niger delta university: Wilberforce island
Bayelsa state, Nigeria
Jaja Bnr1
Department of human anatom, Faculty of basic medical sciences
Niger delta university, Wilberforce island
Bayelsa state, Nigeria
E-mail: [email protected]
Tel: +23408035084615
Numbere Nf
Department of anatomical pathology, university of port-harcourt teaching hospital
Portharcourt, rivers state, Nigeria
Abstract
Acute alcohol intoxication and chronic alcoholism are common medical conditions
that are difficult to treat. Abrus Precatorius is a leguminous plant of the fabacea family
whose seed, leave and roots are widely used for medicinal purposes in tropical and
subtropical regions of the world. This study investigated the renal protective activities of
the seed extract of abrus precatorius following alcohol induced renal damage in adult male
Sprague dawley wister rats. Experimental rats were divided into six groups of five rats per
group. Renal damage was induced with alcohol (1.6g/kg) orally. The treated group received
the crude extract (200mg/kg) orally in addition to alcohol for six weeks, with normal feeds
and water ad libitum. Histological studies, biochemical indicators of renal function and
thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances, as markers of lipid peroxidation, were thereafter
determimed. Oral administration of alcohol caused significant elevation of serum
potassium and sodium levels as well as creatinine and malondialdehyde levels. There were
structural alterations in renal tubules, glomerular infiltration by chronic inflammatory cells.
Concurrent administration of same doses of alcohol and seed extract of abrus precatorius
resulted in a suppression of alcohol- induced renal injury. Measurement of
malondialdehyde level indicated that this effect is related to the attenuation of alcohol
induced lipid peroxidation by the seed extract (p<0.05). We conclude that the seed extract
of abrus precatorius could protect the kidney against alcohol- induced parenchymal injury.
Keywords: Abrus precatorius, Alcohol, Anti oxidants, Ethnopharmacology Protective Effect of Abrus Precatorius Seed Extract Following Alcohol Induced Renal Damage 429
Introduction
The kidney is central to total body homeostasis, regulating water and electrolyte balance and acid base
maintenance, among other critical functions (Kumar and Clark, 2002). Renal damage may occur as a
result of acute intoxication or chronic alcoholism and this has been well established (Heidland et al,
1985; Vamvalas et al, 1998, Cecchin and Demarch, 1996; Epstein, 1997). As much as sixty five
percent of chronic alcoholics may have IgA nephropathy at autopsy (Gonzalez- Quitela et al, 2008).
The mechanism by which alcohol induces renal damage is uncertain. Nevertheless, a role has been
postulated for free radical induced lipid peroxidation ( Nordman et al, 1992; Toykuni, 1999; Kera et al,
1985)
In the field of ethnopharmacology, there is an ongoing search for medicinal plants that may
have protective effects against toxin induced tissue damage. This study focused on the seed extract of
abrus precatorius. Abrus precatorius is a leguminous plant of the fabacea family that is also called
Indian liquorice, Jequirity, Crab eye, Glycyrrhizin glabra, among others. The plant grows widely in
fairly dry climates of tropical and subtropical regions, such as India, Sri Lanka, Nigeria and the West
Indies. The leaves, roots and seeds of abrus precatorius are used for medicinal purposes, a practice
most probably dating back to antiquity (Ivan, 2003).
This study was designed to investigate the following hypothesis: that the aqueous extract of the
seed of abrus precatorius has protective effect against alcohol- induced renal damage; and that this
effect is related to a reduction in alcohol- induced lipid peroxidation.
Materials and Methods
Materials
The plant material, Abrus precatorius seeds, were obtained from a local market in Lagos and
authenticated by Professor Dele Olowokudeji of the Department of Botany, University of Lagos.
The seeds were ground into powder and then soxhlet extracted with distilled water in the
Department of Pharmacognosy, University of Lagos. The yield was concentrated into a solid paste in
vacuo at 50ºC using a rotary evaporator and then stored at 00C until ready for use. 200mg/kg of the
extract was administered to rats orally.
50% Ethanol (NAAFCO, London) was obtained from the Department of Biochemistry,
University of Lagos.
For this study, thirty male Sprague-Dawley rats with age range of 12- 14 weeks and weighing
216 – 234g were utilized. The rats were acclimatized in well ventilated metal cages at room
temperature of 29-30
0
C in the Department of Anatomy, University of Lagos for two weeks. They were
fed on rat pellet and water ad libitum and weighed weekly. The rats were randomly sorted into six
groups of five rats per group and the experimental protocol set up as follows
Control (Negative control): was administered pellet feeds and water.
Group A: (Positive control): was given alcohol (1.6g/kg/rat) for a period of 6 weeks.
Group B: was treated with Alcohol (1.6g/kg/rat) for six weeks and then alcohol withdrawn for the
next four weeks.
Group C: was treated with Alcohol (1.6g/kg/rat) and Abrus precatorius seed extract at a daily dose of
200mg/kg/body weight for a period of 6 weeks.
Group D: was treated with Alcohol 1.6g/kg/rat and vitamin E at a daily dose of 400mg/kg/rat for a
period of 6 weeks.
Group E: received alcohol, vitamin E and Abrus precatorius extract at same doses as above for a
period of 6weeks.
Retrieval of tissue
The rats were subsequently anaesthetized with intramuscular ketamine 1mg/kg, the chest opened and
blood samples collected by heart puncture. Plasma was separated and stored at 0°C. Serum sodium and 430 Ligha ae, Jaja Bnr1 and Numbere Nf
potassium concentration were estimated by the Sompler flame photometric method (Fortes and
Starkey, 1977). Serum creatinine was estimated by the alkaline picrate method of Hare (1950).
The experimental rats were sacrificed; the kidneys harvested, sliced and homogenized with
1.15% KCl solution according to the method of Mihara and Uchiyama (1978).
Determination of Lipid Peroxidation by Measuring Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Substance
(MDA)
Malondialdehyde (MDA) level was determined in the supernatant of the renal homogenates by the
modified method (Buege and Aust, 1978). The concentration was calculated using the molar
absorptivity of malondialdehyde which is 1.56×100000 M.
Tissue Preparation
Harvested kidneys were weighed on an electronic weighing scale and thereafter prepared and
processed according to routine procedures for Haematoxylin and Eosin (H & E) staining. Sections of
0.5 micron were taken for examination under the light microscope. Qualitative differences were
evaluated among the six experimental groups. Renal damage was evaluated as tubular epithelial cell
necrosis, tubular dilation, protein casts, infiltration by inflammatory cells and medullary congestion.
The alterations were semi-quantitatively graded by a pathologist blinded to the nature of the
experiments. The grading was performed by the following criteria: - = absent, + = barely present, ++ =
moderate, +++ = severe.
Statistical Analysis
Data of biochemical analysis are reported as means ± SEM and analyzed statistically by one-way
analysis of variance and the Student-Neumann- Keuls test. The level of significance was set at P <
0.05.
Results
The changes in body weight of experimental animals during the study period are as presented in
figure1. There were no significant changes in body weight during the initial two weeks of the study.
Animals in the control group had the highest increase in body weight whereas those in group B showed
the lowest weight change in the first 6 weeks.
The relative weights of the kidneys of the different groups of experimental rats are presented in
figure 2. The result showed a significant increase in organ weight in groups B, C and D animals when
compared to group A (P<0.05). However, experimental animals in Group E had no significant change
in the weight of the kidney as compared to group A (P>0.05).
Electrolytes and Creatinine levels
Results presented in Table 1 represent electrolyte and creatinine concentration of the different
experimental groups. There was significant alteration in renal function in groups A and E in
comparison to control group as indicated by electrolytes (sodium and potassium) and creatinine levels.
Creatinine levels were also significantly increased in Group A, B and E. Sodium and potassium levels
in groups B, C and D showed significant reduction (P<0.05) in comparison to levels in group A
(positive control). Protective Effect of Abrus Precatorius Seed Extract Following Alcohol Induced Renal Damage 431
Malondialdehyde (MDA) Levels
Malondialdehyde concentration, an index of lipid peroxidation, was significantly increased in the
kidneys of group A animals in comparison to control (P<0.05). Groups B, C and D showed significant
reduction in the levels of MDA as compared to group A (P<0.05) (table 2 and figure 3).
Histopathological examination of the specimens showed severe tubular dilatation in group A.
Renal parenchymal alterations were minimal in group C rats which were treated with alcohol and abrus
precatorius for six weeks (Table 3; Figure 4).
Figure 1: Body weight changes in rats challenged with alcohol and treated with A. precatorius. Group A,
treated with 1.6g/kg of alcohol for 6weeks. Group B, treated with alcohol 1.6g/kg for 6weeks and
then withdrawn for 4weeks. Group C, treated with alcohol and A.precatorius for 6weeks. Group D,
treated with alcohol and vitamin E. Group E, treated with alcohol, A. precatorius and vitamin C.
Control group, saline treated. The columns and bars represents mean ± SEM values (n=5) and
differences were analyzed by student’s t test relative to group A. *P>0.05 indicates no significant
difference and #P<0.05 indicates significant difference in average weight
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
0 k W ee
1 k W ee
2 ke We
3 k W ee
4 ke We
5 k W ee
6 k W ee
7 k W ee
8 k W ee
9 ke We
01 k W ee
Body Weight (g)
Group A
Group B
Group C
Group D
Group E
Control432 Ligha ae, Jaja Bnr1 and Numbere Nf
Figure 2: Kidney weight changes in control and treated rats. Groups are as follows: A; treated with alcohol for
6weeks, B; treated with alcohol for 6weeks and then withdrawn for 4weeks, C; treated with alcohol
and A.precatorius, D; treated with alcohol and vitamin E, E; treated with alcohol, A. precatorius and
vitamin E and Control; saline-treated. All values are expressed as Mean±SEM (n=5) # =P>0.05; *
=P<0.05
0
1
2
3
l ort n Co
A puo Gr
B puo Gr
C puo Gr
D puo Gr
E puor G
Groups
Organ Weight (g)
Table 1: Electrolytes and creatinine of control and treated rats
GROUP SODIUM (mmol/L) POTTASIUM (mmol/L) CREATININE (mmol/L)
Control 132.2±0.64 4.36±0.12 53.0±0.32
Group A 159.0±0.77 7.28±015 62.07±0.91
Group B 134.0±2.42* 5.90±016* 62.4±0.97#
Group C 141.0±.057* 4.60±0.15* 58.06±0.59*
Group D 139.0±2.59* 4.64±0.10* 55.1±0.81*
Group E 157.8±3.11# 6.70±0.14# 80.58±1.64#
All values are expressed as Mean±SEM (n=5). Groups are as follows: A; treated with alcohol for 6weeks, B; treated with alcohol for 6weeks and then
withdrawn for 4weeks, C; treated with alcohol and A.precatorius, D; treated with alcohol and vitamin E, E; treated with alcohol, A. precatorius and
vitamin E and Control; saline-treated.# =P>0.05 * =P<0.05
Table 2: Malondialdehyde Concentration in kidneys of control, treated rats and lipid peroxidation inhibition
rate of seed extract of abrus precatorius.
Groups MDA (umol/mg) Inhibition rate (%)
Control 0.43±0.015 -
A 0.72±0.012 -
B 0.54±0.015 62.1
C 0.52±0.05 69.0
D 0.56±0.07 55.2
E 0.69±0.05 10.3
All values are expressed as Mean±SEM (n=5). Groups are as follows: A; treated with alcohol for 6weeks, B; treated with alcohol for 6weeks and then
withdrawn for 4weeks, C; treated with alcohol and A.precatorius, D; treated with alcohol and vitamin E, E; treated with alcohol, A. precatorius and
vitamin E and Control; saline-treated.# =P>0.05 * =P<0.05 Protective Effect of Abrus Precatorius Seed Extract Following Alcohol Induced Renal Damage 433
Figure 3: Peroxidation Inhibition rate expressed in percentage. All values are expressed as Mean±SEM (n=5)
the groups are: A; treated with alcohol for 6weeks, B; treated with alcohol for6weeks and then
withdrawn for4weeks, C; treated with alcohol and A.precatorius for 6weeks, D; treated with alcohol
and vitamin E for 6weeks, E; treated with alcohol, A. precatorius and vitamin E for 6week and
Control; saline-treated. # = P>0.05; * =P<0.05
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
l ort n Co
A puo Gr
B puo Gr
C puo Gr
D puo Gr
E puo Gr
Groups
Inhibition rate (%)
Figure 4: Micrographs of kidneys from control and treated rats
Control A B
C D E 434 Ligha ae, Jaja Bnr1 and Numbere Nf
Table 3: Histopathological findings in kidneys of control and treated adult male wister rats
GROUPS TUBULAR
DILATATION
PROTEIN
CAST
MEDULLARY
& CORTICAL
CONGESTION
INFLAMATORY
CELLS
HERMORRHAGE
AND NECROSIS
CONTROL-saline treated _ _ _ _ _
A-treated with alcohol for 6weeks +++ ++ _ ++ _
B-alcohol withdrawn for 4weeks
after 6weeks of treatment
_ + ++ _ ++
C-treated with alcohol and
A.precatorius for 6weeks
_ _ _ _ +
D-treated with alcohol and vitamin
E for 6weeks
_ _ _ _ +
E-treated with alcohol, Abrus
precatorius and vitamin E
++ +++ _ _ _
- Absent
+ Barely present
++ Mild
+++ Moderate
++++ Severe
Discussion
Alcohol is widely consumed. It is regarded as the most commonly abused drug in the world with
profound consequences, both societal and medical (Masters, 2004). In this study, alcohol
administration induced severe renal injury evident as derangement of serum electrolyte, elevation of
creatinine levels and structural alterations of tubules, glomeruli as well as parenchymal infiltration by
chronic inflammatory cells. The attendant elevation of malondialdehyde level indicates that the damage
is related to increased lipid peroxidation. This is consistent with the findings of previous studies which
have implicated the generation of reactive oxygen species such as superoxide radicals, hydrogen
peroxide and hydroxyl radicals in alcohol- induced tissue injury (Kera et al., 1985). Alcohol may also
produce tissue damage by causing depletion of glutathione, mitochondrial damage, dysregulation of
growth factor signalling and the potentiation of cytokine- induced cellular injury (Master, 2004). Renal
damage that occurs as a result of alcohol consumption may be reversible with abstinence (Cecchin and
Demarch, 1996); as was also the case in this study.
Rats administered with alcohol and Abrus precatorius seed extract exhibited significant
attenuation of both structural and functional derangement with concomitant reduction in
malondialdehyde level. This finding is supportive evidence that the seed extract of Abrus precatorius
has protective effect against alcohol induced renal injury and that this effect may be related to a
reduction in alcohol- induced lipid peroxidation. The active metabolites in the seed of abrus precatorius
include abrin, abrus agglutinin, glycyrrhizin gallic acid, trigonelline, precatorine and lipolytic enzymes.
Glucine, Coumestrans, resin asparagines and sterols, among others, have also been demonstrated
(Rajavam and Janard, 1992; Ivan, 2003). Gallic acid, glycyrrhizin and trigonelline are potent
antioxidants (Lakshmi et al, 2006). These metabolites may account for the ability of the seed extract of
abrus precatorius to attenuate alcohol induced lipid peroxidation of renal cell membrane vivo.
The seed extract of abrus precatorius have also been shown to possess other pharmacologic
properties. It was shown to have antifertility effect by Rao (1987). Nwodo also demonstrated
ureterotonic effect (1991a) and antidiarrhoeal effect (1991b). More recently, Adelowotan et al. (2008)
demonstrated antimicrobial activities with the acqueous extract of the seed of abrus precatorius.
Although abrus precatorius has been shown to be stable in the gastrointestinal tract, the presence of
toxic lectins in its seed limits its pharmacologic utility. Abrin and Abrin agglutinin are type IV
ribosome inactivating proteins that inhibit protein synthesis in eukaryotes and induce apoptosis
(Bagaria et al., 2006).
Concurrent administration of vitamin E, a potent antioxidant, with alcohol and abrus
precatorius seed extract did not produce enhanced antioxidant effect in this study. This can be
explained by the diversity of the mechanisms by which antioxidants restrict lipid peroxidation by free Protective Effect of Abrus Precatorius Seed Extract Following Alcohol Induced Renal Damage 435
radicals. Denisov and Azatyam (2000) explained that the co-administration of two inhibitors of free
radicals to an oxidized hydrocarbon or other substances may exhibit a net additive, synergistic or
antagonistic effect. It is not unlikely therefore that a net antagonistic effect was the outcome following
concurrent administration of the seed extract of abrus precatorius, alcohol and vitamin E.
Conclusion
The results of this study strongly indicate that the aqueous extract of the seed of abrus precatorius has
protective effect on alcohol- induced renal injury and that this effect is related to the attenuation of
alcohol- mediated lipid peroxidation of renal parenchymal cells.
References
[1] Nordman R, Riviere C, Rouach H(1992). Implication of free radical mechanism in ethanol
induced cellular injury.Free Radical Biology and Medicine12: pp219-240.
[2] Toykuni S(1991). Reactive oxygen species induced molecular damage and its implication in
pathology. Pathology International 49:pp19-102.
[3] Kera Y, Komura S. Ohbora Y, Kiriyama T, Inoue K(1985). Ethanol induced changes in lipid
peroxidation and nonprotein sulfhydryl content. Different sensitivities in rat liver and kidney.
Res. Com. Chem. Pathol. Pharmacol 47: pp203-209.
[4] Heidland A, Hörl WH, Schaefer RM, Teschner M, Weipert J, Heidbreder E(1985). Role of
alcohol in clinical nephrology. Klin Wochenschr. 1985; 63:pp948-58.
[5] Vamvakas S, Teschner M, Bahner U, Heidland A(1998). Alcohol abuse: potential role in
electrolyte disturbances and kidney diseases. Clin Nephrol. 49:pp205-13
[6] Cecchin E, De Marchi S. Alcohol misuse and renal damage(1996). Addict Biol. 1:pp 7-17.
[7] Gonzalez-Quintela AR, Alende F, Gude J, Campos J, Rey LM, Meijide C. Fernandez-Merino
C(2008). Serum levels of immunoglobulins (IgG, IgA, IgM) in a general adult population and
their relationship with alcohol consumption, smoking and common metabolic abnormalities.
Clin Expt Immunol151:pp 42–50
[8] Rajaram N, Janardhanam K(1992). The chemical composition and nutritional potential tribal
pulse, Abrus precatorius. Plant food. Hum Nutr. 42(4): pp285-290.
[9] Ivan AR(2003). Medicinal plants of the world. Chemical constituents, traditional and modern
medicinal uses. pg 18.
[10] Mihara M, Uchiyama M(1978). Determination of malondialdehyde precusor in tissues by
thiobarbituric acid test. Anal. Biochem. 86:pp271-278
[11] Buege JA, Aust SD(1978). Lipid peroxidation methods. Enzymology.11:pp 302-310
[12] Epstein M(1997). Alcohol’s impact on kidney function. Alcohol Health Res World. 21:pp 84-
92.
[13] Masters SB(2007). The Alcohols. In Katzung BG. Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. 19
th
edition. Appleton and Lange. Boston. Pg363 – 373
[14] Adelowotan O, Aibinu I, Adenipekun E, Odugbemi T(2008). The in vitro antimicrobial activity
of Abrus precatorius fabaceae extract in some clinical pathogens. Niger Postgrad Med J.15:pp
32 – 37
[15] Bagaria A, Surendranath K, Ramagopal UA, Rmakumar S, Karade AA(2006). Structure-
Function analysis and Insight into the reduced toxicity of Abrus precatorius Agglutinin I in
relation to Abrin. J Biol Chem. 281; 45: pp34465 – 34474
[16] Rao MV(1987). Antifertlity effects of alcoholic seed extract of Abrus precatorius Linn in male
albino rats. Acta Eur Fertil.18:pp 217 – 220
[17] Nwodo OF, Alumanah FO(1991). Studies on Abrus Precatorius seed II. Antidiarrhoeal activity.
J Ethnopharmacol. 31:pp 395- 398 436 Ligha ae, Jaja Bnr1 and Numbere Nf
[18] Nwodo OF(1991). Studies on Abrus precatorius seed I: Uretorotonic activity of seed oil. J
Ethnopharmacol.31:pp 391- 394
[19] Lakshmi P, Tajdar H, Jehangir T, Sultana S(2006). The effect of gallic acid on renal
biochemical alterations in male rats. Hum Toxicol.25:pp 523 – 529
[20] Hare RS(1950). Endogenous creatinine in serum and urine. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 74:pp148
[21] Fortes KD, Starkey BJ(1977). Sompler flame photometric determination of erythrocytes and
serum sodium and potassium. Clin Chem.23:pp257- 258 v
JequirityScientific classificationKingdom:Plantae(unranked):Angiosperms(unranked):Eudicots(unranked):RosidsOrder:FabalesFamily:FabaceaeGenus:AbrusSpecies:A. precatoriusBinomial nameAbrus precatorius
L.Abrus precatorius, known commonly as Jequirity, Crab's Eye, Rosary Pea, 'John Crow' Bead, Precatory bean, Indian Licorice, Akar Saga, Giddee Giddee or Jumbie Bead in Trinidad & Tobago,[1] is a slender, perennial climber that twines around trees, shrubs, and hedges. It is a legume with long, pinnate-leafleted leaves. It is also known as Gunja in Sanskrit and some Indian languages andRatti in Hindi. With ratti name, it was also long used to measure 0.12125 grams of a traditional unit, mostly used by jewellers and Ayurved doctors.[2] The seeds are also often used as beads and in percussion instruments. The seed contains the poison abrin. The plant is native to Indonesia and grows in tropical and subtropical areas of the world where it has been introduced. It has a tendency to becomeweedy and invasive where it has been introduced.
Contents [hide][edit]ToxinThe toxin present in Abrus precatorius is called abrin. It is a dimer consisting of two protein subunits, termed A and B. The B chain facilitates abrin's entry into a cell by bonding to certain transport proteins on cell membranes, which then transport the toxin into the cell. Once inside the cell, the A chain prevents protein synthesis by inactivating the 26S subunit of the ribosome. One molecule of abrin will inactivate up to 1,500 ribosomes per second. Symptoms are identical to those of ricin, except abrin is more toxic by almost two orders of magnitude; the fatal dose of abrin is approximately 75 times smaller than the fatal dose of ricin. Abrin can kill with a circulating amount of less than 3 μg (micrograms). 'Abrus precatorius' is called "kudri mani" in Tamil and 'Guru Ginja' in Telugu. It is used in Siddha medicine for centuries. The Tamil Siddhars knew about the toxic effects in plants and suggested various methods which is called "suththi seythal" or purification. This is done by boiling the seeds in milk and then drying them. The protein is denatured when subjected to high temperatures which removes it toxicity.[citation needed][dubious – discuss]
[edit]UsesAbrusWhiteSeedsThe seeds of Abrus precatorius are much valued in native jewelry for their bright coloration. The third of the bean with the hilum (attachment scar) is black, and the rest is bright red, suggesting a ladybug. Jewelry-making with jequirity seeds is dangerous, and there have been cases of death by a finger-prick while boring the seeds for beadwork. However, it has long been a symbol of love in China, and its name in Chinese is xiang si dou (Chinese: 相思豆), or "mutual love bean".
In Trinidad in the West Indies the brightly coloured seeds are strung into bracelets and worn around the wrist or ankle to ward off jumbies or evil spirits and "mal-yeux" - the evil eye. A tea is made from the leaves and used to treat fevers, coughs and colds.[3]
The Tamils use Abrus precatorius seeds of different colors. The red variety with black eye is the most common, but there are black, white and green varieties as well. In Siddha medicine the white variety is used to prepare oil that is used as an aphrodisiac.[4]
[edit]NamesAbrus precatorius has different names in various Indian languages.[5]
- Sanskrit : Gunja (गुंजा)
- Hindi : Rati; Gaungchi; Gunchi; Gunja (गुंजा)
- Bengali : Kunch; Koonch
- Gujarati : Gumchi; Chanothi
- Kannada : Gurugunji
- Kashmiri : Shangir
- Malayalam : Kunni; Gundumani
- Persian : Gunchi; Chashami-Khurosa
- Punjabi : Mulati
- Tamil : Gundumani; Kunthamani
- Telugu : Guruginia (గురివింద)
Bright red seeds of A. precatorius are strung as jewelry
Abrus precatorius leaves & flowers
Abrus precatorius flowers
Footnotes
- ^ Mendes (1986), p. 79.
- ^ Abrus precatorius : Gunja (Ratti)|Bhopal Birds|Parag Bakshi, March 01, 2007|Archieved on March 17, 2010
- ^ Mendes (1986), p. 79.
- ^ Dr.J.Raamachandran, "HERBS OF SIDDHA MEDICINES-The First 3D Book on Herbs", page 2
- ^ Dr. K. M. Nadkarni's Indian Materia Medica, Volume 1, Edited by A. K. Nadkarni, Popular Prakashan, Bombay, 1976, pp. 5.
References]External linksWikimedia Commons has media related to: JequirityWikimedia Commons has media related to: Abrus precatoriusWikispecies has information related to: Abrus precatorius
Footnotes
- ^ Mendes (1986), p. 79.
- ^ Abrus precatorius : Gunja (Ratti)|Bhopal Birds|Parag Bakshi, March 01, 2007|Archieved on March 17, 2010
- ^ Mendes (1986), p. 79.
- ^ Dr.J.Raamachandran, "HERBS OF SIDDHA MEDICINES-The First 3D Book on Herbs", page 2
- ^ Dr. K. M. Nadkarni's Indian Materia Medica, Volume 1, Edited by A. K. Nadkarni, Popular Prakashan, Bombay, 1976, pp. 5.
- Mendes, John (1986). Cote ce Cote la: Trinidad & Tobago Dictionary. Arima, Trinidad.
- List of plants of Caatinga vegetation of Brazil
- Abrus precatorius seed (extremeclose-up)
European Journal of Scientific Research
ISSN 1450-216X Vol.25 No.3 (2009), pp.428-436
© EuroJournals Publishing, Inc. 2009
http://www.eurojournals.com/ejsr.htm
Protective Effect of Abrus Precatorius Seed Extract following
Alcohol Induced Renal Damage
Ligha Ae
Department of human anatomy; Faculty of basic medical sciences
Niger delta university: Wilberforce island
Bayelsa state, Nigeria
Jaja Bnr1
Department of human anatom, Faculty of basic medical sciences
Niger delta university, Wilberforce island
Bayelsa state, Nigeria
E-mail: [email protected]
Tel: +23408035084615
Numbere Nf
Department of anatomical pathology, university of port-harcourt teaching hospital
Portharcourt, rivers state, Nigeria
Abstract
Acute alcohol intoxication and chronic alcoholism are common medical conditions
that are difficult to treat. Abrus Precatorius is a leguminous plant of the fabacea family
whose seed, leave and roots are widely used for medicinal purposes in tropical and
subtropical regions of the world. This study investigated the renal protective activities of
the seed extract of abrus precatorius following alcohol induced renal damage in adult male
Sprague dawley wister rats. Experimental rats were divided into six groups of five rats per
group. Renal damage was induced with alcohol (1.6g/kg) orally. The treated group received
the crude extract (200mg/kg) orally in addition to alcohol for six weeks, with normal feeds
and water ad libitum. Histological studies, biochemical indicators of renal function and
thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances, as markers of lipid peroxidation, were thereafter
determimed. Oral administration of alcohol caused significant elevation of serum
potassium and sodium levels as well as creatinine and malondialdehyde levels. There were
structural alterations in renal tubules, glomerular infiltration by chronic inflammatory cells.
Concurrent administration of same doses of alcohol and seed extract of abrus precatorius
resulted in a suppression of alcohol- induced renal injury. Measurement of
malondialdehyde level indicated that this effect is related to the attenuation of alcohol
induced lipid peroxidation by the seed extract (p<0.05). We conclude that the seed extract
of abrus precatorius could protect the kidney against alcohol- induced parenchymal injury.
Keywords: Abrus precatorius, Alcohol, Anti oxidants, Ethnopharmacology Protective Effect of Abrus Precatorius Seed Extract Following Alcohol Induced Renal Damage 429
Introduction
The kidney is central to total body homeostasis, regulating water and electrolyte balance and acid base
maintenance, among other critical functions (Kumar and Clark, 2002). Renal damage may occur as a
result of acute intoxication or chronic alcoholism and this has been well established (Heidland et al,
1985; Vamvalas et al, 1998, Cecchin and Demarch, 1996; Epstein, 1997). As much as sixty five
percent of chronic alcoholics may have IgA nephropathy at autopsy (Gonzalez- Quitela et al, 2008).
The mechanism by which alcohol induces renal damage is uncertain. Nevertheless, a role has been
postulated for free radical induced lipid peroxidation ( Nordman et al, 1992; Toykuni, 1999; Kera et al,
1985)
In the field of ethnopharmacology, there is an ongoing search for medicinal plants that may
have protective effects against toxin induced tissue damage. This study focused on the seed extract of
abrus precatorius. Abrus precatorius is a leguminous plant of the fabacea family that is also called
Indian liquorice, Jequirity, Crab eye, Glycyrrhizin glabra, among others. The plant grows widely in
fairly dry climates of tropical and subtropical regions, such as India, Sri Lanka, Nigeria and the West
Indies. The leaves, roots and seeds of abrus precatorius are used for medicinal purposes, a practice
most probably dating back to antiquity (Ivan, 2003).
This study was designed to investigate the following hypothesis: that the aqueous extract of the
seed of abrus precatorius has protective effect against alcohol- induced renal damage; and that this
effect is related to a reduction in alcohol- induced lipid peroxidation.
Materials and Methods
Materials
The plant material, Abrus precatorius seeds, were obtained from a local market in Lagos and
authenticated by Professor Dele Olowokudeji of the Department of Botany, University of Lagos.
The seeds were ground into powder and then soxhlet extracted with distilled water in the
Department of Pharmacognosy, University of Lagos. The yield was concentrated into a solid paste in
vacuo at 50ºC using a rotary evaporator and then stored at 00C until ready for use. 200mg/kg of the
extract was administered to rats orally.
50% Ethanol (NAAFCO, London) was obtained from the Department of Biochemistry,
University of Lagos.
For this study, thirty male Sprague-Dawley rats with age range of 12- 14 weeks and weighing
216 – 234g were utilized. The rats were acclimatized in well ventilated metal cages at room
temperature of 29-30
0
C in the Department of Anatomy, University of Lagos for two weeks. They were
fed on rat pellet and water ad libitum and weighed weekly. The rats were randomly sorted into six
groups of five rats per group and the experimental protocol set up as follows
Control (Negative control): was administered pellet feeds and water.
Group A: (Positive control): was given alcohol (1.6g/kg/rat) for a period of 6 weeks.
Group B: was treated with Alcohol (1.6g/kg/rat) for six weeks and then alcohol withdrawn for the
next four weeks.
Group C: was treated with Alcohol (1.6g/kg/rat) and Abrus precatorius seed extract at a daily dose of
200mg/kg/body weight for a period of 6 weeks.
Group D: was treated with Alcohol 1.6g/kg/rat and vitamin E at a daily dose of 400mg/kg/rat for a
period of 6 weeks.
Group E: received alcohol, vitamin E and Abrus precatorius extract at same doses as above for a
period of 6weeks.
Retrieval of tissue
The rats were subsequently anaesthetized with intramuscular ketamine 1mg/kg, the chest opened and
blood samples collected by heart puncture. Plasma was separated and stored at 0°C. Serum sodium and 430 Ligha ae, Jaja Bnr1 and Numbere Nf
potassium concentration were estimated by the Sompler flame photometric method (Fortes and
Starkey, 1977). Serum creatinine was estimated by the alkaline picrate method of Hare (1950).
The experimental rats were sacrificed; the kidneys harvested, sliced and homogenized with
1.15% KCl solution according to the method of Mihara and Uchiyama (1978).
Determination of Lipid Peroxidation by Measuring Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Substance
(MDA)
Malondialdehyde (MDA) level was determined in the supernatant of the renal homogenates by the
modified method (Buege and Aust, 1978). The concentration was calculated using the molar
absorptivity of malondialdehyde which is 1.56×100000 M.
Tissue Preparation
Harvested kidneys were weighed on an electronic weighing scale and thereafter prepared and
processed according to routine procedures for Haematoxylin and Eosin (H & E) staining. Sections of
0.5 micron were taken for examination under the light microscope. Qualitative differences were
evaluated among the six experimental groups. Renal damage was evaluated as tubular epithelial cell
necrosis, tubular dilation, protein casts, infiltration by inflammatory cells and medullary congestion.
The alterations were semi-quantitatively graded by a pathologist blinded to the nature of the
experiments. The grading was performed by the following criteria: - = absent, + = barely present, ++ =
moderate, +++ = severe.
Statistical Analysis
Data of biochemical analysis are reported as means ± SEM and analyzed statistically by one-way
analysis of variance and the Student-Neumann- Keuls test. The level of significance was set at P <
0.05.
Results
The changes in body weight of experimental animals during the study period are as presented in
figure1. There were no significant changes in body weight during the initial two weeks of the study.
Animals in the control group had the highest increase in body weight whereas those in group B showed
the lowest weight change in the first 6 weeks.
The relative weights of the kidneys of the different groups of experimental rats are presented in
figure 2. The result showed a significant increase in organ weight in groups B, C and D animals when
compared to group A (P<0.05). However, experimental animals in Group E had no significant change
in the weight of the kidney as compared to group A (P>0.05).
Electrolytes and Creatinine levels
Results presented in Table 1 represent electrolyte and creatinine concentration of the different
experimental groups. There was significant alteration in renal function in groups A and E in
comparison to control group as indicated by electrolytes (sodium and potassium) and creatinine levels.
Creatinine levels were also significantly increased in Group A, B and E. Sodium and potassium levels
in groups B, C and D showed significant reduction (P<0.05) in comparison to levels in group A
(positive control). Protective Effect of Abrus Precatorius Seed Extract Following Alcohol Induced Renal Damage 431
Malondialdehyde (MDA) Levels
Malondialdehyde concentration, an index of lipid peroxidation, was significantly increased in the
kidneys of group A animals in comparison to control (P<0.05). Groups B, C and D showed significant
reduction in the levels of MDA as compared to group A (P<0.05) (table 2 and figure 3).
Histopathological examination of the specimens showed severe tubular dilatation in group A.
Renal parenchymal alterations were minimal in group C rats which were treated with alcohol and abrus
precatorius for six weeks (Table 3; Figure 4).
Figure 1: Body weight changes in rats challenged with alcohol and treated with A. precatorius. Group A,
treated with 1.6g/kg of alcohol for 6weeks. Group B, treated with alcohol 1.6g/kg for 6weeks and
then withdrawn for 4weeks. Group C, treated with alcohol and A.precatorius for 6weeks. Group D,
treated with alcohol and vitamin E. Group E, treated with alcohol, A. precatorius and vitamin C.
Control group, saline treated. The columns and bars represents mean ± SEM values (n=5) and
differences were analyzed by student’s t test relative to group A. *P>0.05 indicates no significant
difference and #P<0.05 indicates significant difference in average weight
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
0 k W ee
1 k W ee
2 ke We
3 k W ee
4 ke We
5 k W ee
6 k W ee
7 k W ee
8 k W ee
9 ke We
01 k W ee
Body Weight (g)
Group A
Group B
Group C
Group D
Group E
Control432 Ligha ae, Jaja Bnr1 and Numbere Nf
Figure 2: Kidney weight changes in control and treated rats. Groups are as follows: A; treated with alcohol for
6weeks, B; treated with alcohol for 6weeks and then withdrawn for 4weeks, C; treated with alcohol
and A.precatorius, D; treated with alcohol and vitamin E, E; treated with alcohol, A. precatorius and
vitamin E and Control; saline-treated. All values are expressed as Mean±SEM (n=5) # =P>0.05; *
=P<0.05
0
1
2
3
l ort n Co
A puo Gr
B puo Gr
C puo Gr
D puo Gr
E puor G
Groups
Organ Weight (g)
Table 1: Electrolytes and creatinine of control and treated rats
GROUP SODIUM (mmol/L) POTTASIUM (mmol/L) CREATININE (mmol/L)
Control 132.2±0.64 4.36±0.12 53.0±0.32
Group A 159.0±0.77 7.28±015 62.07±0.91
Group B 134.0±2.42* 5.90±016* 62.4±0.97#
Group C 141.0±.057* 4.60±0.15* 58.06±0.59*
Group D 139.0±2.59* 4.64±0.10* 55.1±0.81*
Group E 157.8±3.11# 6.70±0.14# 80.58±1.64#
All values are expressed as Mean±SEM (n=5). Groups are as follows: A; treated with alcohol for 6weeks, B; treated with alcohol for 6weeks and then
withdrawn for 4weeks, C; treated with alcohol and A.precatorius, D; treated with alcohol and vitamin E, E; treated with alcohol, A. precatorius and
vitamin E and Control; saline-treated.# =P>0.05 * =P<0.05
Table 2: Malondialdehyde Concentration in kidneys of control, treated rats and lipid peroxidation inhibition
rate of seed extract of abrus precatorius.
Groups MDA (umol/mg) Inhibition rate (%)
Control 0.43±0.015 -
A 0.72±0.012 -
B 0.54±0.015 62.1
C 0.52±0.05 69.0
D 0.56±0.07 55.2
E 0.69±0.05 10.3
All values are expressed as Mean±SEM (n=5). Groups are as follows: A; treated with alcohol for 6weeks, B; treated with alcohol for 6weeks and then
withdrawn for 4weeks, C; treated with alcohol and A.precatorius, D; treated with alcohol and vitamin E, E; treated with alcohol, A. precatorius and
vitamin E and Control; saline-treated.# =P>0.05 * =P<0.05 Protective Effect of Abrus Precatorius Seed Extract Following Alcohol Induced Renal Damage 433
Figure 3: Peroxidation Inhibition rate expressed in percentage. All values are expressed as Mean±SEM (n=5)
the groups are: A; treated with alcohol for 6weeks, B; treated with alcohol for6weeks and then
withdrawn for4weeks, C; treated with alcohol and A.precatorius for 6weeks, D; treated with alcohol
and vitamin E for 6weeks, E; treated with alcohol, A. precatorius and vitamin E for 6week and
Control; saline-treated. # = P>0.05; * =P<0.05
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
l ort n Co
A puo Gr
B puo Gr
C puo Gr
D puo Gr
E puo Gr
Groups
Inhibition rate (%)
Figure 4: Micrographs of kidneys from control and treated rats
Control A B
C D E 434 Ligha ae, Jaja Bnr1 and Numbere Nf
Table 3: Histopathological findings in kidneys of control and treated adult male wister rats
GROUPS TUBULAR
DILATATION
PROTEIN
CAST
MEDULLARY
& CORTICAL
CONGESTION
INFLAMATORY
CELLS
HERMORRHAGE
AND NECROSIS
CONTROL-saline treated _ _ _ _ _
A-treated with alcohol for 6weeks +++ ++ _ ++ _
B-alcohol withdrawn for 4weeks
after 6weeks of treatment
_ + ++ _ ++
C-treated with alcohol and
A.precatorius for 6weeks
_ _ _ _ +
D-treated with alcohol and vitamin
E for 6weeks
_ _ _ _ +
E-treated with alcohol, Abrus
precatorius and vitamin E
++ +++ _ _ _
- Absent
+ Barely present
++ Mild
+++ Moderate
++++ Severe
Discussion
Alcohol is widely consumed. It is regarded as the most commonly abused drug in the world with
profound consequences, both societal and medical (Masters, 2004). In this study, alcohol
administration induced severe renal injury evident as derangement of serum electrolyte, elevation of
creatinine levels and structural alterations of tubules, glomeruli as well as parenchymal infiltration by
chronic inflammatory cells. The attendant elevation of malondialdehyde level indicates that the damage
is related to increased lipid peroxidation. This is consistent with the findings of previous studies which
have implicated the generation of reactive oxygen species such as superoxide radicals, hydrogen
peroxide and hydroxyl radicals in alcohol- induced tissue injury (Kera et al., 1985). Alcohol may also
produce tissue damage by causing depletion of glutathione, mitochondrial damage, dysregulation of
growth factor signalling and the potentiation of cytokine- induced cellular injury (Master, 2004). Renal
damage that occurs as a result of alcohol consumption may be reversible with abstinence (Cecchin and
Demarch, 1996); as was also the case in this study.
Rats administered with alcohol and Abrus precatorius seed extract exhibited significant
attenuation of both structural and functional derangement with concomitant reduction in
malondialdehyde level. This finding is supportive evidence that the seed extract of Abrus precatorius
has protective effect against alcohol induced renal injury and that this effect may be related to a
reduction in alcohol- induced lipid peroxidation. The active metabolites in the seed of abrus precatorius
include abrin, abrus agglutinin, glycyrrhizin gallic acid, trigonelline, precatorine and lipolytic enzymes.
Glucine, Coumestrans, resin asparagines and sterols, among others, have also been demonstrated
(Rajavam and Janard, 1992; Ivan, 2003). Gallic acid, glycyrrhizin and trigonelline are potent
antioxidants (Lakshmi et al, 2006). These metabolites may account for the ability of the seed extract of
abrus precatorius to attenuate alcohol induced lipid peroxidation of renal cell membrane vivo.
The seed extract of abrus precatorius have also been shown to possess other pharmacologic
properties. It was shown to have antifertility effect by Rao (1987). Nwodo also demonstrated
ureterotonic effect (1991a) and antidiarrhoeal effect (1991b). More recently, Adelowotan et al. (2008)
demonstrated antimicrobial activities with the acqueous extract of the seed of abrus precatorius.
Although abrus precatorius has been shown to be stable in the gastrointestinal tract, the presence of
toxic lectins in its seed limits its pharmacologic utility. Abrin and Abrin agglutinin are type IV
ribosome inactivating proteins that inhibit protein synthesis in eukaryotes and induce apoptosis
(Bagaria et al., 2006).
Concurrent administration of vitamin E, a potent antioxidant, with alcohol and abrus
precatorius seed extract did not produce enhanced antioxidant effect in this study. This can be
explained by the diversity of the mechanisms by which antioxidants restrict lipid peroxidation by free Protective Effect of Abrus Precatorius Seed Extract Following Alcohol Induced Renal Damage 435
radicals. Denisov and Azatyam (2000) explained that the co-administration of two inhibitors of free
radicals to an oxidized hydrocarbon or other substances may exhibit a net additive, synergistic or
antagonistic effect. It is not unlikely therefore that a net antagonistic effect was the outcome following
concurrent administration of the seed extract of abrus precatorius, alcohol and vitamin E.
Conclusion
The results of this study strongly indicate that the aqueous extract of the seed of abrus precatorius has
protective effect on alcohol- induced renal injury and that this effect is related to the attenuation of
alcohol- mediated lipid peroxidation of renal parenchymal cells.
References
[1] Nordman R, Riviere C, Rouach H(1992). Implication of free radical mechanism in ethanol
induced cellular injury.Free Radical Biology and Medicine12: pp219-240.
[2] Toykuni S(1991). Reactive oxygen species induced molecular damage and its implication in
pathology. Pathology International 49:pp19-102.
[3] Kera Y, Komura S. Ohbora Y, Kiriyama T, Inoue K(1985). Ethanol induced changes in lipid
peroxidation and nonprotein sulfhydryl content. Different sensitivities in rat liver and kidney.
Res. Com. Chem. Pathol. Pharmacol 47: pp203-209.
[4] Heidland A, Hörl WH, Schaefer RM, Teschner M, Weipert J, Heidbreder E(1985). Role of
alcohol in clinical nephrology. Klin Wochenschr. 1985; 63:pp948-58.
[5] Vamvakas S, Teschner M, Bahner U, Heidland A(1998). Alcohol abuse: potential role in
electrolyte disturbances and kidney diseases. Clin Nephrol. 49:pp205-13
[6] Cecchin E, De Marchi S. Alcohol misuse and renal damage(1996). Addict Biol. 1:pp 7-17.
[7] Gonzalez-Quintela AR, Alende F, Gude J, Campos J, Rey LM, Meijide C. Fernandez-Merino
C(2008). Serum levels of immunoglobulins (IgG, IgA, IgM) in a general adult population and
their relationship with alcohol consumption, smoking and common metabolic abnormalities.
Clin Expt Immunol151:pp 42–50
[8] Rajaram N, Janardhanam K(1992). The chemical composition and nutritional potential tribal
pulse, Abrus precatorius. Plant food. Hum Nutr. 42(4): pp285-290.
[9] Ivan AR(2003). Medicinal plants of the world. Chemical constituents, traditional and modern
medicinal uses. pg 18.
[10] Mihara M, Uchiyama M(1978). Determination of malondialdehyde precusor in tissues by
thiobarbituric acid test. Anal. Biochem. 86:pp271-278
[11] Buege JA, Aust SD(1978). Lipid peroxidation methods. Enzymology.11:pp 302-310
[12] Epstein M(1997). Alcohol’s impact on kidney function. Alcohol Health Res World. 21:pp 84-
92.
[13] Masters SB(2007). The Alcohols. In Katzung BG. Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. 19
th
edition. Appleton and Lange. Boston. Pg363 – 373
[14] Adelowotan O, Aibinu I, Adenipekun E, Odugbemi T(2008). The in vitro antimicrobial activity
of Abrus precatorius fabaceae extract in some clinical pathogens. Niger Postgrad Med J.15:pp
32 – 37
[15] Bagaria A, Surendranath K, Ramagopal UA, Rmakumar S, Karade AA(2006). Structure-
Function analysis and Insight into the reduced toxicity of Abrus precatorius Agglutinin I in
relation to Abrin. J Biol Chem. 281; 45: pp34465 – 34474
[16] Rao MV(1987). Antifertlity effects of alcoholic seed extract of Abrus precatorius Linn in male
albino rats. Acta Eur Fertil.18:pp 217 – 220
[17] Nwodo OF, Alumanah FO(1991). Studies on Abrus Precatorius seed II. Antidiarrhoeal activity.
J Ethnopharmacol. 31:pp 395- 398 436 Ligha ae, Jaja Bnr1 and Numbere Nf
[18] Nwodo OF(1991). Studies on Abrus precatorius seed I: Uretorotonic activity of seed oil. J
Ethnopharmacol.31:pp 391- 394
[19] Lakshmi P, Tajdar H, Jehangir T, Sultana S(2006). The effect of gallic acid on renal
biochemical alterations in male rats. Hum Toxicol.25:pp 523 – 529
[20] Hare RS(1950). Endogenous creatinine in serum and urine. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 74:pp148
[21] Fortes KD, Starkey BJ(1977). Sompler flame photometric determination of erythrocytes and
serum sodium and potassium. Clin Chem.23:pp257- 258 v
